QUALITY OF LIFE OF GHETTO PEOPLE

Riverton City's Experience: The Urban Environment Quality Of Life Of Its Residents, April - May, 2006



By



Candice Cooper, Paul Bourne, Jennifer Green, Jacqueline Ricketts and Ophelia Moffatt




BACKGROUND

Riverton City is located in the western region of St. Andrew, west of Kingston with the southern part bordering St. Catherine. The borders of the community are: From the point where Sandy Gully crosses Spanish Town Road, southwesterly along Atlantic Ocean Boulevard to the Railway Line, northwesterly along Duhaney (Salt) River to where it crosses Mandela Highway at the back of Alex Import, easterly along Mandela Highway to where it meets Spanish Town Road, southeasterly along Spanish Town Road to Sandy Gully. Furthermore, the community is divided into two (2) Electoral Districts. These are W039 & W040. It is considered an inner-city area, with characteristics such as high unemployment, poor quality housing, bad roads, crime, poor sewage disposal, poor solid waste disposal etc.

Notwithstanding those factors, in the 1960's a group of citizens were forced to relocate from Back-A-Wall West Kingston to Riverton City. The area's physical environment was filled with swamps, pigs and mosquitoes. The relocation exercise brought with it mass migration of landowners to the area.

In the 1970's the landscape began to change with the first basic school being built by the St. Patrick's Foundation, and the first church by the Seventh Day Adventist. During this period also, there was gang violence over scarce resources and turf.

The following decade ushered skills training programmes, which were provided by various organizations such as the Social Development Commission (Leadership training), the Seventh Day Adventist Church and the St. Patrick's Foundation. During the same period there was an immunization drive against infectious diseases, targeting children. It was also alleged that a number of pigs had rabies therefore police responded by killing them.

In the 1990' various developmental activities had taken place among which were the construction of Operation Pride Houses, the formation of the Riverton Meadows Development Organization and the introduction of a Marriage Officer- which resulted in a significant increase in the number of weddings. 1999 will be remembered as the year of marriages. During this period the dump was converted to a landfill. There was the construction of 2 major roadways; these were Portland & Trelawny Avenue. There was the implementation of the Bee keeping project, which aided in the production of honey & wine.

According to the 2001 Jamaica Population Census Country Report there were 2,454 persons residing in the Riverton City Community of which 53% were males compared to 47% females. This resulted in a sex ratio of 113 males per 100 females. This is contrary to that which obtains in Jamaica, where there are more females than males, with a sex ratio of 97 males per 100 females.


INTRODUCTION

The world economic crisis had led to a global slowdown of economic activities and development. Increasing oil prices in the 1970s resulted in Jamaica and other developing countries taking loans from western banks at what appeared at the time to be reasonable interest rates. However, interest rates skyrocketed which was due mainly to international recession which severely affected developing countries. The effects are felt to this present time, the nature of which affects peoples' quality of life.

The state of the Jamaican environment has been gaining increased attention over the past decade by government and non-government organizations. Kingston Metropolitan Area like other urban areas has a growing population with limited access to land and other resources which often leads to squatting and unsustainable use of natural resources. Population growth without providing for housing, water, waste management, roads, schools and other services often results in environmental degradation. The 1991 population census showed that 538,100 lived in the Kingston Metropolitan Area (KMA) and in 2001 it was 651,880. The population is growing at an estimated 21 per cent over the ten year period and is expected to increase by 8 per cent by the year 2010. The population density for Jamaica was estimated to be 211 persons per square kilometer in 1991 with Kingston and St. Andrew showing the highest densities, 1,343 persons per square kilometer (STATIN/ NEPA).

City growth is changing the condition of humanity and the face of the earth. The last century began with less than 10 percent of the world's population living in cities, but this century began with over 50 percent living in urban areas (STATIN/NEPA). Rapid urbanization is one of the most challenging features of development affecting the environment within human settlements.

Contemporary Riverton City is largely an informal settlement, with the exception of the housing development spearheaded by the National Housing Development Corporation. It has a population density of 591 per square kilometres. It is considered an inner-city area, with characteristics such as high unemployment, poor quality housing, bad roads, crime, poor sewage disposal and poor solid waste disposal.

RATIONALE

This research exercise seeks to analyze the effects of socio-demographic variables on Urban Quality of Life of persons living in Riverton City. "The meaning of the phrase quality of life differs a good deal as it is variously used but, in general, it is intended to refer to either the condition of the environment in which people live, (air and water pollution, or poor housing, for example), or to some attribute of people themselves (such as health or educational achievement)" (Pacione, 1982; Hills, 1985; Benzeval et al., 1995).

Riverton City exemplifies an array of problems facing many inner- city neighborhoods in the Kingston Metropolitan Area (KMA). In addition, flooding and increasing pollution and waste disposal problems makes this community an interesting area to study and therefore has been selected as the site for this research project.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Quality of life is underpinned by not only private standards of living but also by all the essential conditions in which people live. The concept of "quality of life" was developed to measure and evaluate people's well-being, satisfaction and happiness. It demands, amongst other things, available and accessible social and public infrastructure to satisfy the needs of those involved and affected by it as well as an environment without serious deterioration or pollution. Most of these conditions are not met in our inner-city communities, since these residents live in areas that lack basic facilities and services.

Milbrath states that "...if quality of life is defined as happiness or well-being or satisfaction, it is necessarily subjective", thus, the objects which we value as positive provide that value to our life quality. It must be recognized that there are elements of happiness that have their origin in the individual. There are people who are able to feel happy even in the worst environmental conditions, while others cannot be happy even in the best environmental conditions. This means that the environmental quality of life may be perceived or viewed differently for different people depending on their gender, age and culture.

Human Ecology as defined by the Wilkpedia Encyclopedia is an academic discipline that deals with the relationship between humans and their natural environment. Human ecology also investigates how humans and human societies interact with nature and with their environment. It explores not only the influence of humans on their environment but also the influence of the environment on human behaviour and their adaptive strategies as they come to understand those influences better. This has brought with it insurmountable problems for the urban population, as the existing infrastructure cannot adequately meet the needs of this growing population.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Urban Environment Quality of Life

Professor Thomas-Hope in a Grace Kennedy Foundation lecture (1996), stated that the typical Jamaican refers to the environment as, cutting down of trees, problems of garbage and litter, drainage and sanitation problems in the inner city, as well as the problems of crime, stress and tension. However, environment, as defined by Thomas-Hope, is the relationship between people and nature. Quality of life (QOL), in general, is defined as, the conditions of the environment in which people live, (air and water pollution, or poor housing, for example), or to some attribute of people themselves (such as health or educational achievement) (Pacione, 1982; hills, 1995; Benzeval et. Al., 1995). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines QOL as: "(an) individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value system in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad-ranging concept affected in a complex way by the person's physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, and their relationship to salient features of their environment."

Living conditions of inner city communities:

Marshall Clinard (1966) identified several areas within poor urban communities that are distinctive of these types of communities in general. While suggesting that in general each community is characteristically different from other similar communities, he identifies; inadequate housing, deficient facilities, overcrowding and congestion, poor sanitation and health practices, deviant behaviour, apathy and social isolation as well as the development of a subculture as common within all urban poor communities.

In a report by PAHO "Health in the Americas" (Vol. 1, 2002) state that, "Human activity and persistent poverty are associated with contamination of resources and scarcity of water sources. Unchecked urbanization for example, demands that the needs of new residents be satisfied and, consequently, unhealthy conditions remain and are repeated, particularly for the poor. Thus, disparities in access to high-quality housing and basic water and waste disposal services increase".

The examination of social problems continues to be the driving force behind the examination of society; we are compelled as social scientist to find avenues that will offer solutions to the myriad of social problems which exist. One of the areas where the most focus is being placed in current social science research is the area of sustainable development, focusing mainly on the environment. The conditions under which our most vulnerable live is becoming more and more of a concern in social science research as the spill off effect of poor quality of life among this section of the population is becoming more visible. Pacione's definition of Urban Environmental Quality of Life, suggest that the matter of sustainability of the living condition of members of these poor urban communities has not only impact on the environment but also affects the socio-psychological aspect of residents.


Housing conditions:

Clinard states that in general the slums (as he refers to them) are "portions of cities in which housing is crowded, neglected, deteriorated, and often obsolete, he states that these houses usually have inadequate lighting and circulation, poor design and lack of sanitary facilities, overcrowding, and inadequate maintenance. Clinard continues that "in developing countries, many cities have large squatter areas, shanty towns built of scrap material on unauthorized land and providing minimal protection from the elements." Although writing some forty years ago Slums and Community Clinard has highlighted some crucial aspects to the development of urban poor communities. These have changed very little over those forty years and are still relevant to looking at these types of communities.

Education:
Clinard states that "Slum dwellers are usually not only uneducated but also largely illiterate. Although there is great need for a mass adult literacy program and facilities are often available, a major drawback to effective literacy campaigns has been the urban slum dwellers' lack of desire to become literate".

In Levy's study, the people saw a connection between work and a good educational level as well as with the possession of a skill. They mentioned that learning a trade was a means by which young people gain employment. A young man said that skill level was the main reason for keeping a job with reference to a nearby construction operation. It was generally felt that trade skills was preferred to "education" because those who had CXC had difficulty in getting a job while at the same time there were few trained persons in the community who were able to get jobs.

Employment:

In her study of four urban poor communities Caroline Moser ¬Confronting Crisis: A comparative study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Urban Poor Communities (1996), identifies that one condition that was similar to most communities of this type was that income sources were not normally based on a single activity. While persons were involved in even formal jobs they often supplemented their income through other types of activities, usually from self-employment.

The effect of unemployment in "They Cry Respect, Urban Violence and Poverty in Jamaica" compiled by Horace Levy is different for men and women, varying with different social roles and options for survival. "A boy must be tough, so he turns to a gun: A girl can find a man to support her because she looks good. The link, therefore, between unemployment and crime and violence refers above all to men" pg. 36. Mention was made that women's most preferred means of survival is dependence on a man followed by various options which include buying and selling, domestic work and begging.

Levy showed graphically, the effect of unemployment on women, according to a group of Young Park Town Women among which, were, unemployment for women means pregnancy and dependence on a man, leading to abuse or domestic violence. The frustrations of low or no income for either partner is often taken out on the other or on the children. Among the reasons given why women turn to men are, lack of parental guidance as well as peer and community pressure.

Levy mentioned in his book that unemployment was the most important matter to the people of five inner city communities' studied.90% and 75% of the people of Park Town and Zinc City respectively were unemployed). The value that is placed on work is due to its benefits, making survival possible and there is also the negative consequence of not having it.

Age:

One important point that was noted by Moser in her study was that for all four communities that were included in her study they all had a youthful population with at least forty percent being under the age of fourteen year. The evidence has shown that not only are the poor high represented but that they are disproportionately high numbers of youth among the poorest section of populations. This in itself will affect sustainable development, as these poor youth having very limited avenues will remain poor and grow up to become contributors to or social problems.

Perception:

Clinard argues that in general slum dwellers have a high level of indifference about their condition especially of the areas in which they live, this leads to "a general lack of community consciousness" (pg. 23).

Household Size

Individuals with the highest incidence of poverty are those in relatively large households, in all surveys from 1989 - 2001 (JSLC 2002). Family size is an important determinant of whether a family or individual is in poverty because the official poverty measure incorporates household size. Persons living in large households usually lack the capability or ability to escape their situations.

Gender

Female headed households according to the JSLC 2002 were highest in KMA (50.8 per cent). An analysis of household size by sex of household head reveal that female-headed continues to register a larger mean household size at 3.75 persons compared with male-headed ones at 3.23 persons. Thus it is reasonable to conclude that with increase responsibility, that is, a larger household size there will be more efficient use of resources by women.


OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this report is to determine the extent to which socio-demographic factors affect the Urban Environmental Quality Of Life of persons living in Riverton.

The specific objectives are:

To determine whether the Urban Environmental Quality of Life of persons living in the formal housing development in Riverton is better than those living in Shanty.

To determine if there is an inverse relationship between household size and urban environmental quality of life.

To ascertain whether the age of the household head has a direct relationship to urban environmental quality of life.

To determine whether persons who have obtained a high level education/ skills training have a better urban environmental quality of life than persons who do not.

To determine whether persons who are employed (self-employed) have a better urban environmental quality of life than those who are unemployed.

To determine whether a male's quality of life is better than that of a female.

To determine whether persons living in the community for a longer period have a better quality of life than persons who are new to the area.


METHODOLOGY

Design of Instrument

Coming out of our mandate to examine the "community experience of urban environmental quality", we formulated a research instrument that would have captured all the issues related to the topic. A decision was made to use a questionnaire as the research instrument. This was further subdivided into a mixture of open and close-ended questions. The class was guided to collect information on the following issues: household information, socio economic factors, and community perception. Hence, the questionnaire was designed to capture this information.

The first draft of the questionnaire consisted of 4 sections with 19 questions: Section A - household information, Section B - Socio Economic, Section C - Community perception, Section D - Demographic Data. A pilot test of this questionnaire was done on March 11, 2006.
From our pilot we realized that the questionnaire was not capturing what we intended to measure hence fundamental changes were made to the initial questionnaire. These are: The inclusion of
Sanitary convenience
Water supply
Fuel consumption
Garbage disposal
And the removal of the question pertaining to the landline telephone etc

The final questionnaire constituted of 27 items.

Sample Selection Process

A physical count of the number of dwellings in the community was done on Saturday, March 11, 2006. Our count revealed a total of 737 housing units with 304 units in ED W039 & 433 units in W040. The 2001 Population Census Report had a figure of 812 housing units. For the purposes of our survey, our count of 737 was used to select the sample size. A 10% (74 units) sample was taken.

Based on the sample size of 74, we divided the number of students (11) into the sample size; resulting in 6.7 questionnaires per student to be administered. Because of the fraction, a decision was made that 7 questionnaires were to be administered by each student, thus resulting in a total of 77 questionnaires. Based on the number of housing units per enumeration districts, we multiplied this proportion by the sample size. 32 questionnaires were to be administered in EDW039 and 45 in EDW040 .
With the aid of Mr. Desmond Hall, Director of Urban & Regional Planning at the University of Technology & PhD candidate, the community was divided into 34 blocks. This was then collapsed into 17 blocks. However, given the class size, persons were given more than 1 block. In order to determine the number of questionnaires to be done in each block, the number of housing units in each block was divided by the total number of housing units in the respective enumeration districts; this was then multiplied by the total number of questionnaires to be administered in each ED. The final allotment for the blocks was:



Administration of Questionnaire

On the 18th of March 2006 at approximately 10:00 a.m. 11 student interviewers and Mr. Desmond Hall visited the community of Riverton City to administer questionnaires. On reaching the community we were accepted by the gatekeeper and other community members. Of the 10 questionnaires allotted per interviewer each was expected to complete a minimum of 7.

The interviewers focus was on household head or any available person on the same who was able to supply information on that individual in his/ her absence.

The interviewing process began with the 11 interviewers and their community assistants subdividing themselves into 3 groups to ensure safety and provide support. The starting point was at the intersection of Westbrook & Westmoreland Avenue in ED 039, moving southeasterly along Westmoreland Avenue.

In order to ensure non-repetition each group of interviewers traveled together while 1 interviewed a respondent and the others proceeded to another within close proximity.

At approximately 2:30p.m the interviewing session culminated at the Community Center.

DATA TRANSFORMATION


(CONTACT - [email protected])


TRANSFORMATION BY COMPUTATION

Total number of persons in household = Sum of children under 16 years, persons 16 to 19 years, individuals 20 to 29 years, and persons 30 and over
Total expenditure = Sum of electricity, water, food, cooking fuel, clothing, transport, loans, medical expenses, and education.


ANALYSIS OF DATA

Demographics
The sample population was 82 persons, of which approximately 46% (n=38) were females, and 54% (n=44) (See Figure 1 below). A sex ratio of 116 males per 100 females
Figure 1: Gender distribution of sample

The minimum age was 19, and the maximum age was 80. The mean age of respondents was approximately 40 years ±15 years. Based on the median age of 37 years, the sample population was an old one. This may be due to the fact that head of households were interviewed, and these persons are more likely to be older than 20 years.
Of the sample size of 82 individuals approximately 83% were head of the household, while 17% were not (See Figure 2). Of those who were not household head, 7% were spouses, 6% were children of head, and 4% other relatives.

Figure 2: Distribution of Persons Interviewed

Based on Table 1, 87.8% of respondents lived in Old Riverton (Shanty) compared to 12.2% in New Riverton (Riverton Meadows).
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents living in Riverton (Old & New Riverton)



From Table 1, the highest level of schooling was secondary (including skill training and vocational institutions) 67.9%, below all age (including no formal level of education) 29.6%, and university 2.5%. Of the sampled population concerning highest level of schooling, the completion rate was 54.4% (n= 43) compared to a non-completion rate of 45.6% (n= 36). In respect to the completion rate of schooling, 67.4% (n= 29) of the respondents had completed secondary school, and below all age 30.2% (n= 13) compared to tertiary 2.3% (n= 1).

In respect to how long persons were living in the community, 81 persons responded to this question. The average length of time was approximately 24 years, with 22 years being the most frequent number of years.
Age Distribution & Household Information

Of the 179 persons living in the 82 households, approximately 30% were children under 16 years, 15% were between the ages 16 to 19, 21% were between the ages 20 to 29, and 34% were over 30 years. On average there were 4 persons per household, with a minimum of 1 person, and a maximum of 21 persons. There were 2 persons per room ± 1 person, with a maximum of 6 persons. From our statistics it revealed that there is no overcrowding, because there are 2 persons per room.
Household Facilities

From the data, the main toilet facility was pit latrine (75.6%, n= 62) with water closet being second most used facility (17.1%, n= 14), and bush usage being 4.9% (n= 4), and neighbour being 2.4% (n= 2) (See Figure 3).

Figure 3: Toilet Facility Used by Respondents

From Figure 4 (below), the main source of water supply was ?'piped into yard' 41.5% (n= 34), with standpipe following at 28.0% (n= 23), piped into dwelling being 24.4% (n= 20), and neighbour/ friend being 6.1% (n= 5).
Figure 4: Source of Water Supply

In respect to the type of fuel most used for cooking, 70.7% of the respondents used gas only, 8.5% used charcoal/ wood only, 17.1% used kerosene only, 1.2% used kerosene and charcoal, compared to 2.4% which used, gas, electricity and wood.

The sampled population disposed of their garbage by garbage trucks only 48.8% (n= 40) compared to 34.1% burnt only, and 17.1% used a combination of methods (with 9.8% having used garbage truck & ?'burn').
Employment Information

The employment rate of the sample was 74.4% (n= 61) compared to an unemployment rate of 25.6% (n= 21). Based on the cross tabulation, 79.5% of men were employed, compared to 68.4% of their female counterparts.

Figure 5: Employment Status by Gender

When they were asked, ?'what do you do for a living?' the responses varied from nail technician/ hairdresser, shop attendant, factory worker, recycler, garbage collector, driver, security officer etc. Respondents had more than 1 activity that contributed to their income, and when asked, of which activity contributed the most to their income, 94.4% responded that first activity (their primary occupation) identified was responsible (see Table 4 below).

Table 4: Activities contributing most to Income

Of the sampled population, in respect to ?'how much do you get per week?' 91.5% (n= 75) responded. From the data 26.7% of the respondents received an income of between $3,000.00 & $5,000.00 weekly, 36.0% less than $3,000.00 weekly, 22.7% between $5,001.00 & $8,000.00 weekly, compared to 8.0% who received an income of between $8,001.00 & $10,000.00, with 6.7% reporting an income of over $10,001.00 weekly (see Table 5)
Table 5: Income Distribution


Expenses

When respondents were asked how much do they spend on electricity, 87.7% stated $0.00, 4.1% $1,500.00 monthly, 2.7% $3,000.00 monthly and 5.5% stated $2,800.00, $4,000.00, and $6,000.00. In respect to the water bills, only 12.3% of persons said that they paid these expenses.
On an average, household heads spent $2,486.27 on cellular bills monthly, $8,386.00 on food, $1,787.00 on cooking fuels, $5,052.00 on closing & accessories, $3,352.00 on transportation, $4,662.50 on loans/ hire purchase, $4,235.50 on medical expenses, $5,438.00 on education, and $4,300.00 on other expenses. In respect to persons who were paying medical expenses, they were spending on average $2,500.00 with most persons paying $1,000.00. On the other hand, of those persons who had loans & or hire purchase, the response rate was 7.3% (n= 6). The sampled expenditure was $24,070.06 per household, with a maximum expenditure of $81,540.00.

Most common problems

According to the respondents, some of the problems faced by the community were mosquito infestation, unemployment, air pollution and smoke from fires at dump site, poor housing, and bad roads, in addition to other issues, such as poor street lighting, ownership of land, poor drainage and flooding, crime, water pollution in gullies, poor garbage collection & solid waste disposal, noise etc. The top 5 problems in ascending order are mosquito infestation, high unemployment, air pollution and smoke from fires at dump site, poor housing and bad roads. However, when the respondents were asked ?'what are the 3 most important problems?' they responded first high unemployment, second poor housing, and lastly bad roads.

Approximately 90% of persons noted that ?'not enough' was being done to solve the problems of the community. However, they cited that the following issues were being addressed:
o Wetting of the road;
o Computer classes;
o Regular cleaning of gullies;
o Government doing "something", but community members are not "co-operating";
o Occasional night visits by the police;
o The building of housing schemes;
o Father Richard Albert assisting the elderly, and
o Assistance from the councillor.
Despite what is being done in the community, the residents offered a number of possible solutions that could be used to address some of the problems. These ranged from:
o Creating employment;
o A good MP/ Political Leadership;
o Drainage & gully cleaning;
o Educational & literacy programmes;
o House construction, and
o Spraying of mosquitoes etc. (see Table 6)
Table 6: Solutions Given by Residents
Details Frequency Valid Percent
Creating Employment 14 19.44%
A good MP/ Political leadership 13 18.06%
Drain clean/ gully clean 10 13.89%
Education/ literacy 4 5.56%
Construction of better drainage system 3 4.17%
House construction & repair 3 4.17%
Construction of recreational area, youth center etc. 3 4.17%
skills training center 3 4.17%
Counselling for youth 3 4.17%
Nothing 3 4.17%
The MP needs to accept God 3 4.17%
Citizen cooperation/ community based programme 2 2.78%
Need to get rid of gun men/ police patrol 2 2.78%
Spray mosquitoes 2 2.78%
Social marketing/ edification of people 1 1.39%
Research 1 1.39%
Fairness in distribution of jobs 1 1.39%
Less oppression- government, church/ private sector 1 1.39%
Total 72 100.00%

In dealing with some of the problems of Riverton City, approximately 31% of the community members believed that they could volunteer, teach other members, and advise youth compared to 39% who believe they can do "nothing".

From the perspective of an onlooker, it would appear that residents of Riverton would be experiencing poor health status. However, some 58.8% of respondents reported that their health was not affected from living within the community, compared to 41.2% who believed otherwise. Generally, despite the fair health status of residents, respiratory sickness was the main reason of illness (37.9% n=11 - Asthma) (see Figure 6 below).

Figure 6: Health Problems affecting Residents of Riverton City

It is generally felt that people living in inner-city areas are uncomfortable with their environment. However, 33% of the people in Riverton reported that they were "comfortable and safe" when asked ?'how they felt about living in the community?', 30% (n= 22) stated satisfactory, 26% (n= 19) stated that they loved it and felt good about it, while 9.6% (7) stated that it was bad.

REVIEW OF QUALITY OF LIFE

When the classification of Riverton City was contrasted based on ?'how do you feel about living in the community?' a significant statistical relationship existed (chi square value= 17.43, p value= 0.002, n=73 - meaning that there is a relationship between how you feel about living in the area, and where in the area you reside). Of the 63 persons living in Old Riverton, 11.11% stated that they felt "bad" about living in the area, whereas no one from New Riverton felt the same. Generally, people residing in New Riverton felt better in regards to living in the area, compared to those living in Old Riverton. However, from Table 7, 40% of those living in New Riverton felt "satisfactory" compared to 28.6% of those in Old Riverton. Contrary, 33.3% of Old Riverton residents felt "comfortable and safe", compared to 30% of New Riverton residents.


Chi-Square Tests
Value Degree of Freedom Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 17.43 4 0.002
N of Valid Cases 73

From Table 8 (below), there is a statistical relationship, between "how do you feel about living in the community?" and ones gender (chi square value= 29.90, p value= 0.001, n=73 - meaning that there is a relationship between how you feel about living in the area, and ones gender). In access of 100% of males felt ?'bad' about living in the area, compared to females- 13.51% and 5.71% respectively. However, females felt safer in regards to living in the area than males (37.14%- females and 29.73% - males).


Chi-Square Tests
Value Degree of Freedom Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 29.90 4 0.001
N of Valid Cases 73

Looking at Table 9 (below), there is a statistical relationship, between "do you think enough is being done to solve any of the problems?" and ones gender (chi square value= 7.498, p value= 0.006, n=81- meaning that there is a relationship between whether enough is being done to solve the problems, and ones gender). It should be noted that more males felt that enough was being done, in comparison to their female counterparts (7.89%- males, 13.95%- females). Both males (86.05%) and females (92.11%) felt that not enough was not being done to solve the problems in the community.


Chi-Square Tests

Value Degree of Freedom Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 7.498 1 0.006
N of Valid Cases 81

From Table 10, 12 variables were entered into a Regression Model, of which 4 were not significant. The variables that were not significant were: head of household, total number of persons in each household, how do you feel about living in the community, and whether you resided in New or Old Riverton City. The significant independent variables explain 38% of the urban environmental quality of life of Riverton residents (see Table 10b). The statistical relationship between the urban environmental quality and the independent variables was a relatively strong one (with a Pearson's Correlation Coefficient of 0.616). With respect to the independent variables, schooling below all age contributed the most to the model, followed by secondary schooling, health status, age, ?'enough not being done to solve the problems', employment status, ?'how long you living in the community', and lastly gender.

Table 9a showed that there is a negative relationship between all age and secondary schooling, and urban environmental quality of life- persons who attended all age schooling and below negatively impacted more on the environment than persons attending secondary. Residents who had tertiary level education, based on the model, were not included.
Of the 8 significant determinants, only 3 were found to contribute positively to urban environmental quality of life. These were: age, ?'not enough being done to solve problems', and gender of the respondents. The interpretation here is, for example, the older one becomes, the more he or she contributes to the environmental quality of life. There is a direct relationship between what is being done to solve the problems and urban environmental quality of life.

It should be noted here that there is a negative relationship between someone who is ill and his or her quality of life (β= -0.48- see Table 10a). Contrasting ?'how long you have been living in Riverton?' with urban environmental quality of life, for every year lived in the community, one's environmental quality of life decreased by 0.18 units.

The model rejected head of household, total of number of persons living in households, ?'how do you feel about living in the community?', and Riverton classification. This means that whether an individual lives in Old Riverton (Shanty) or New Riverton, this does not influence on his or her urban environmental quality of life. It also follows that head of household is not a factor in urban environmental quality of life, and this was also the case for the total number of persons living in a household, and ?'how do you feel about living in the community?'

The Urban Environmental Quality of Life Index (UEQOLI) revealed that persons who are employed contribute less as against those who are unemployed. On the other hand, females had a higher UEQOLI than their male counterparts.

Table 10a: Determinants on Quality of Life of People in Riverton City


Table 10b: Model Summary


Table 10c: Analysis of Variance


DISCUSSION

Thomas-Hope (1996) cited a conceptualization on the environment that reads "people and nature" and this summarizes the significance of the quality of people living everywhere including those in the Riverton City Community. Other studies went further into the discourse by labelling some of the variables that influence the environment and the people. Pacione (1982) forwarded a definition that subsumes this entire research that quality of life is the "conditions of the environment in which people live or to some attitudes of people themselves" and this perspective was seen in the works of other academics (PIOJ and STATIN, 2002; Milbrath, 1978; Wirth, 1938). From the multiple regression model, a finding of this study was fairly strong statistical relationship (Pearson's Correlation Coefficeint of 0.616 or 61.6%) between urban environment quality of life and eight determinants.

The issues highlighted as having significant influence on urban environment quality of life of residents of Riverton City Community were age, health status, employment, educational level - below all age and secondary schooling , length of time living in community, gender of respondents, and what is been done to solve the problems faced by dwellers.

Overall the findings of this study concurred with literature review that there is a statistical relationship between employment and quality of life (Levy, 1996), and this he reported that "the value that is placed on work is due to its benefits and making survival possible and also the negative consequences of not having [employment]". Our findings subdivided the sampled population and it was revealed that females were experiencing a higher urban environmental quality of life than their male counterparts, a point which is supported by females having a higher life expectancy than males (PIOJ, 1995, p. 36). This issue could be further aided by Levy's (1996) finding that stated females' survivability is depending on a male figure, hence, the male is more pressured with his social setting.
According to Clinard (1966), people who reside in a particular topography (slums) share a certain characteristics, and these include "uneducated" and "illiterate", which explains his next approach that was a thrust in skills training of those individuals. The findings revealed that approximately 68 percent of the residents of Riverton City Community had attained the most of secondary (or high) level education, with approximately 30 percent having had at most below all age education. From this finding, it should not be sparkling clear that people were experiencing low degree of urban environmental quality of life. Some pundits purported that poverty alleviation and by extension improvements in quality of life of urban slum dwellers can be transformed by skills training and the introduction of formal education but Clinard (1996) warns about this approach. He believed that urban ?'slum' residents lack the inner will of social mobility through education. This point was subsumed in the findings of this study.
From this study there was a positive statistical relationship between age at last birthday and urban environmental quality of life (beta value of 0.252, alpha = 0.001). This translate into the older people become the more their quality of life increase. The researchers believed that despite the relatively low level of formal education, the residents of Riverton City Community are more appreciative of all the aesthetics of life, and this helps to justify the rationale for the direct relationship between their quality of life and increased ageing. "Could this explain the differences in perception of residents of the community?"

According to Clinard (1966), "slum dwellers have a high level of indifference about their conditions especially of their areas in which they live" an issue that was supported by this study. Our research revealed that males and females viewed things differently. From our study, a cross tabulation between gender and perception of the things being done to solve the problems, more men (13.9 %) believed things were being done to address the problematic issues of the community compared to 7.8 % of females.




LIMITATIONS

Data was weighted because of the small sample size
Income data for head of households were not used in the analysis since there expenditure were far more than their income
The sample size was subjectively calculated and as a result the findings couldn't be generalized

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The Urban Environmental Quality of Life for persons in all age schools were found to be lower than persons in secondary schools therefore we are recommending that HEART and JAMAL could visit the community and provide training.

2. Have a social marketing campaign to educate persons on their role in the environment since the longer you live in the community the more you contribute to degradation.

3. Need the empowerment of men by UNFPA and Father's Incorporated.

4. Need NEPA to visit the community and contribute towards infrastructural development.

5. Enforce anti-litter law.

6. Institute polluters pay principle for persons who pollute the area.

7. Prosecute garbage truck driver and company if they do not drive on designated routes.

8. UWI Quality Leadership Team to assist in mentorship, skills training etc.

9. Ministry of Health to come in and make regular air quality checks and ensure that the environment is safe for living.

10. Completion of Operation Pride houses.

11. Promote community policing


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clinard, Marshall, Slums and Community Development: experiments in self-help. New York: The Free Press, 1966

Levy, Horace, They Cry Respect: Urban Violence and Poverty in Jamaica. Kingston: CPCSC, 1996

Milbrath, L.W. (1978), "Indicators of environmental quality" in UNESCO, "Indicators of environmental quality and quality of life", reports and papers in Social Sciences No.38, pages 3-56.

Moser, Caroline O. N., ¬Confronting Crisis: A comparative study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Urban Poor Communities. Washington D.C.: ESD, 1996.

National Resources Conservation Authority. Jamaica State of the Environment The 1997 Report 1998, Kingston, Jamaica

Pacione, Michael. "Urban environmental quality and human wellbeing - a social geographical perspective" Landscape and Urban Planning Vol. 65 (2003) pp.19-39

PAHO. "Health in the Americas" Pan American Sanitary Bureau Vol. 1 (2002)
PIOJ. A Statement of National Population Policy, Jamaica. Revised 1995. Kingston, Jamaica

PIOJ / The Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2002). Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions, 2003. Kingston, Jamaica

STATIN and NEPA. Jamaica's Environment 2001 - Environment Statistics and State of the Environment Report. 2001. Kingston, Jamaica

Thomas-Hope, Elizabeth (1996). The Environmental Dilemma in Caribbean Context. Grace Kennedy Foundation Lecture 1996. Kingston, Jamaica

Vickers, Jeanne. Women and the World Economic Crisis. 1990/91, Zed Books Limited. London NI 9BU.

Wirth, L., 1938. Urbanism as a Way of Life. American Journal of Sociology. 44, 1-24


PAUL ANDREW BOURNE
TEACHNING ASSISTANT
THE DEPT. OF GOVERNMENT
THE UNIVERSITY OF WEST INDIES
MONA
KINGSTON, JAMAICA