THE SOCIOLOGIC OF POLITICS

MYTHS AND FACTS: THE LONG MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT





INTRODUCTION


Paul Bourne, M.Sc. (pending); BSc. (Hons.); Dip. Edu.


Topology of typology - Jamaica

Eastern Jamaica represents extremely steep and rugged topography with the crest of the Blue Mountain Range reaching 2254 m within about 10 km of the coast. Landscape in eastern Jamaica is geologically young (Quaternary). It is seismically most active part of the island and appears to be undergoing geotectonic uplift. Watersheds are relatively small and steep. Rivers flow through steep canyons onto alluvial/debris fans before emptying into the Caribbean Sea. With the exception of alluvial fans, flat areas are rare in the parishes of Portland, St. Thomas, and Upper St. Andrew. Communities have settled on fans and development activities are hindered by a lack of flat land. Landslides are common and are perhaps the most widespread hydro geologic hazard on human timescale causing land degradation thus affecting land productivity. Bedrock structure strongly influences slope stability. Landslides preferentially occur in locations where the direction of dip of bedding in the shale and sandstone sequence daylights in slope faces. Landslides occurred both in the landscape modified for human use as well as on slopes under dense forest cover (Rafi Ahmad et al (2004) from the Departments of Geography and Geology).

Rafi et al went on to state that, "The vulnerability of Jamaica to geohazards is primarily due to inherent physical conditions arising from geologic, tectonic, and geomorphic factors. The island lies within a 200-km wide, seismically active zone of Neogene left-lateral strike-slip deformation that defines the central section of the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates (Mann et al., 1985)." They continued that, "It is located in the track of north Atlantic hurricanes passing through the Caribbean. The present-day topography on the island has largely resulted from crustal movements during Quaternary (Horsfield, 1974). The highly fractured and deeply weathered and altered bedrock and neotectonics control the landforms and geomorphic processes to a remarkable extent. Slope instability is notable throughout the island. These factors are well known and the resulting vulnerability can be forecast, however, case studies during 1986 to 1995 show that the costs of rehabilitation and reconstruction have increased in the wake of natural disasters (Ahmad, 1995; Carby and Ahmad, 1995)."

Kingston, the capital of island is situated on the Holocene gravel fan of Liguanea at the base of a faulted mountain front. This speaks to a ring of low hills of Tertiary limestones (Long Mountain, Dallas Mountain, and Stony Hill) borders the fan. Overlooking those geographic localities do the Port Royal Mountains (of St. Andrew) comprise Cretaceous to Paleogene rocks of the Wagwater Belt. Rafi et al contended that, "Lead-zinc-copper mineralization occurs at several sites within the Belt. Notable among the industrial rocks and minerals are vast reserves of gypsum and limestones." "According to Mann & Burke (1990), the Wagwater Belt of eastern Jamaica formed as a transverse intra-arc rift and it appears that the uplift and doming of the sediments in the trough is a consequence of compression at a right-stepping bend on the thoroughgoing, left-lateral Enriquillo-Plantain Garden-Swan fault system which forms the southern part of the plate boundary zone." (Rafi et al, 2004).

Source: Tara Hirst, 2003; Photograph of Long Mountain overlooking Mona and the University of the West Indies

On Long Mountain, then, is it safe to carry out blasting which will displace rocks of an area, which is already on fragile topology? Answer- The openness of the island to geohazards is mainly due to natural physical conditions arising from geologic, tectonic, and geomorphic factors. Jamaica lies within a 200-km wide, seismically active zone of Neogene left-lateral strike-slip deformation that defines the central section of the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates (Mann et al., 1985). According to Rafi et al, it is located in the track of north Atlantic hurricanes passing through the Caribbean. They concurred that "the present-day topography on the island has largely resulted from crustal movements during Quaternary (Horsfield, 1974). The highly fractured and deeply weathered and altered bedrock and neotectonics control the landforms and geomorphic processes to a remarkable extent. Slope instability is notable throughout the island."

Summary of the environmental profile of Kingston and St.Andrew (KMA)

In the arguments forwarded to this point Long Mountain, which is located in Kingston and St. Andrew, is known to be within a particular topological position in Jamaica and by extension in the Caribbean. Let us remind you of this fact, the city of Jamaica (Kingston) is located on the Holocene gravel fan of Liguanea to which at its base is a faulted mountain front where a ring of low hills of Tertiary limestones (Long Mountain, Dallas Mountain, and Stony Hill) borders the fan.

Geologists argued that, "Lead-zinc-copper mineralization occurs at several sites within the Belt. Notable among the industrial rocks and minerals are vast reserves of gypsum and limestone." Hence, why the present afoot in the construction of dwellings for humans on Long Mountain? Is the contamination of Long Mountain with buildings a political and economic decision verses an environmental decision within the context of sustainable development?

Source: Tara Hirst, 2003; Degradation of top soil from the housing development (in the background overlooking the reservoir)

Management of the Environment
The management and the effective balancing mechanism of the economic, social and environmental factors are not simply a mathematical technique to which the solution is either calculus or any other statistical technique. But, it is a continuous drive to harmonize man's needs for survival, self-esteem, self-actualization, warm, a place to residence, the need for wellness and other social facilities; while synchronizing those demands with the reality and capacity of the environment with the understanding of not reducing future generations' consumption of the same quality space.

This harmonization of environment in the past (prior to the 1980s) was not done within the understanding of sustainable development but solely economics. In that, man would seek to consume as much of the environment without the comprehension that his/her future is inextricably linked to the environment. With the every expanding Westernization of the Caribbean and more so Jamaica, there is a growing need for commercial activities, social arrangement, dwellings, and facilities that are continuously demanding more of the environment.

Urbanization is one of the tools of Westernization. This phenomenon results in more and increasingly more of the use of the limited lands to which characterized the Caribbean. On the other hand; Pollution, deforestation, the destruction of wildlife, the watershed and the natural forestry are just a few examples of the rape of the land and by extension reducing the qualities of the land for future consumption by today's man.

Many advocates of urbanization blindly purport that this new phenomenon is modernity and development. As such, their views over the years up early 1990s have been the dominate position believed and utilized by governments in planning. This belief brought about a remarkable and unprecedented depletion of the ozone layer, solid waste problems, pollution - air, land and sea; ecosystems mismanagement, depletion of quality water supply, the increase in respiratory diseases and depletion of much of the environment to which man relies for survival. Those issues have resulted in the birth of institutions like Greenpeace and old institutions like the World Bank adopting and instituting measures that governments around the world will need to implement in order to alleviate environment issues.

Old institutions like the United Nation and World banks were not volunteers in the fight against environmental problems but it was a difficult struggle for those organizations to join the team advocating as they are today for sustainable development. Within the context of the insistence of many environmental watchdogs groups, advocacy over the years through their methods in marketing have enhance people's awareness of the numerous ecological hazards that are likely to destroy the environment. The issue of sustainable development within the reality of the negative environment implications of global warming, climate change, pollution, the depletion of the ozone layer, and the negative consequences of water borne diseases and problems of food supply and quality environment for man's consumption is a mammoth task for ecologists. The materialist foundation has been set on the agendas of influential institutions such as the World Bank and the United Nation to address the balance between environment and economics but some countries continue to adhere to their own devices and mechanisms.

Now that the World Bank Grouping of institutions have been involved with this new thrust on their agenda, they have been able to institute policies that are seeing more and increasingly more countries no longer being able to arbitrarily use solely economic costs-benefit analyses in decision making but issue of sustainable development.

While it is true that people have an insatiable appetite for consumption of goods and-or services than demands more of the environment, when an environmental audit is used it must be of materialist value in decision making and not be felt solely political and economic managers. The demand and supply of dwellings close to the urban centres is becoming increasingly more burdensome for political and economic managers in light of sustainable development.

Deforestation, degradation of the watersheds, the removable of natural wildlife and the displacement of rocks are becoming increasingly a reality in the Caribbean experience given the fact of limited land space, so much so that we are seeing more and more blatant rape of the environment.

Westernization which is termed urbanization in places such as Flanker, St. James; Portmore, St. Catherine; Mona Planes, St. Andrew and the ?'New Long Mountain housing development' opposite the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus in Kingston, Jamaica, West Indies cannot be continued across the island despite the need for housing because of the environmental impact of such decisions. In that, the ecological degradations must be priced, understood within the position of sustainable development and their negative implications on global encroachment. That is, there needs to be a balance between the environmentalists' and the economists' viewpoints otherwise only the economists' thought will benefits and not man to which it is designed in the first place.

Disposal of domestic sewage is a serious problem throughout the Caribbean. Raw or partially treated human or animal waste is routinely deposited in many areas. In Aruba, the pollution of ground water by sewage effluent is one of the factors that have necessitated the use of expensive desalinated water (Archer 1988).

In 1991, approximately 10 per cent of the population of the Caribbean was served by a centralized sewer system (Vlugman 1992). This statistic would have increased in the more recent past with the implementation of or extension of municipal sewerage systems in the major urban areas. Pit latrines were the main focal waste disposal system utilized in the Caribbean up to the 1980s, and they are still the main method in use along with pail closets in rural areas, particularly where running water is not available. Individual septic tanks and soak away serve much of the remainder of the population.

Packaged sewerage treatment plants accompanied the advent of planned residential developments, resorts and industrial estates in the 1960s, but because the systems are poorly maintained, they tend to malfunction or become altogether non-operational and consequently deliver raw sewage into ground and surface water. Hotel plants are known to discharge untreated sewage into inshore waters throughout the region (often from inoperative treatment plants); with destructive effects on coastal wetlands, coral reefs and sea grass beds.

In 1991, approximately 13 per cent of 138 plants surveyed in the eastern Caribbean were found to be non¬functional. Twenty-five per cent were considered to be efficiently operated, while 36 per cent were operated only moderately and 22 per cent were operated poorly (Vlugman 1992). Adopted effluent quality criteria were not being met by 75 per cent of the plants surveyed by Vlugman in 1992.

Pollution of land and water by sewage is a major public health hazard in several Caribbean islands, where low absorbability sub-soil conditions and high groundwater conditions prevail. In densely developed coastal areas such as Kingstown in St. Vincent and Basseterre in St. Kills, the height of the water table limits the absorptive capacity of the soil and heightens. The risk of sewage pollution of coastal waters is evident in the Caribbean during the large-volume discharges.

In a number of islands, outfall pipes have been damaged or destroyed by hurricanes and rough seas, and consequently pipes discharge raw sewage onto beaches and inshore marine areas (Archer 1988).
The problem of faecal contamination from land-based sources is compounded when yachts discharge raw sewage into the water. This is a particular concern where coral reef systems are involved. Reef and beach ecosystems in southern St. Vincent and southwestern Tobago are under stress from.

The past two decades have seen the increasing industrialization of some states. Paint manufacturers, food processors, metal works, petrochemical industries and battery manufacturers all generate toxic and hazardous solid and liquid wastes in increasing quantities. Facilities for the safe treatment and disposal of these wastes are severely limited. Waste is frequently stored on factory sites or vacant lots, disposed of in municipal dumps, or discharged into rivers with little or no treatment Inappropriate handling of lead wastes has caused the contamination of numerous sites and resulted in cases of acute lead poisoning in children Jamaica and in Trinidad and Tobago.

Surface waters are routinely utilized as receptors of untreated process waste effluent. Only 39 per cent of 140 small industries surveyed in 1995 (UNDP/ CARICOM Regional Sewage Disposal Project) undertook some degree of wastewater treatment. Approximately 64 per cent of the total wastewater was discharged into the coastal zone, sea, or surface water; 25 per cent was discharged into the ground (including soak away systems); 6 per cent was released into public sewers, and 4 per cent was utilized for crop irrigation (Sammy et al. 1995). These disposal practices were linked to unpleasant smells, water discoloration and reduced fish catches, and imposed health risks on users.

NATURAL and MANAFACTURED DISASTERS

The distinctive geological feature of the Caribbean is the Caribbean Plate, which underlies most of the Caribbean Sea. The movement of this plate relative to the surrounding coastal plates creates a halo of earthquakes and other tectonic activities that reveal the shape of the plate and the geological processes occurring around its periphery. Stresses along the eastern part of the northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate have caused uplift and subsidence,



AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION PATTERNS IN JAMAICA

According to Goldsheider (1998) migration is the "detachment from the organization of activities at one place and the movement of the total round of activities to another." That is, people who move from one place to another while changing their usual place of residence are migrants. This definition, however, excludes people who move from one place to another without changing their place(s) of abode. This includes vacation travelers and people whose jobs necessitate traveling from one place to another.

The categories most frequently used in the studies of migration distinguish between moves across international boundaries, (that are from one county to another international migration) and move between different places in the same country (that is internal migration). For example, a person who comes from Barbados to live in Jamaica here is called an immigrant. On the other hand, a person who leaves Jamaica to reside in Barbados is called an emigrant. Previously, those situations are within the scope of international migration (that of, emigration and immigration), whereas, internal migration speaks specifically to the changing of ones place of abode within the same the same geographically defined border. A typical example is an individual who removes from Southside, Kingston (irrespective of specificity of address) to reside permanently in Flanker, Montego Bay, St. James, Long Mountain, St. Andrew or from Caroni to St. Patrick in the twin islands of Trinidad and Tobago.

A component in the population dynamics of any country is external migration. However, both internal and external migrations are important components of population change. External migration has been a major contributor to the reduction in population growth. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago like other countries in Caricom are affected by internal migration in terms of the predominant rural to urban drift. External migration or the permanent change of residence from the country to another affects the population redistribution and change. Geographic mobility has played a major role in the distribution and redistribution of humans on the surface of this planet.

The internal and external movements are largely influenced by imbalance in the development process and associated push and pull factors. The process of immigration and emigration influences migration rate. Immigrants to Jamaica and the twin islands of Trinidad and Tobago may include returning residents, deportees, Commonwealth citizens and aliens. Both processes have affected these countries' population structure.
Why do people migrate?

Migration was defined as "moving or leaving by an individual from country of birth to another". The reasons that would stimulate this would include:
• Economic gain and improvement
• Marriage
• Political asylum - persecution for political, trade union or religious reasons
• Refugee - to escape famine, wars and genocide
• Outlaws - running away from crimes
• Exile - being banished by the Government
• Job requirements and vocational needs
• Medical and educational
Are there different kinds of migrants?
Our group identified five (5) key groups:
• Political - this would include racial, religious and cultural migrants
• Economic - for reasons such as housing, medical, educational, standard of living, employment
• Romantic
• Criminal - running from the law, fraud, felony
• Vocational - to expand skills and knowledge with the intention of returning

What do migrants bring to their locality?
We identified a number of benefits, which we saw as positive:
• Culture - food, dance, art and craft and different types of activities
• Religion - a mix of religions (for instance Trinidad and Tobago has Christians, Hindus, Muslims, Shangos, Oraisha and, of course, Obia if you choose to count that as a spiritual belief system)
• Skills
• Language - In Trinidad, our English is enriched by words from India, France, Spain, Africa and some local Carib words. Amongst some small pockets, we can still find French Patois, Hindi and Spanish.
• Population growth
• Different outlook on life and things in general










Racial tension
Increased crime as poor migrants try and survive (some thought this was a stereo-type and not necessarily valid)
Increased poverty in some areas
It could slow technological advancement as companies use cheap labour instead of developing new technology
Costs of language training
Loss of foreign exchange
Source: Dave Smith (Member of NATUC General Council)

According to David Levine (1990), migration has historically been central in the formation of Caribbean countries. Over time, throughout the region migration patterns have responded to economic and political development within the islands and to the impact of international forces ranging from investment and trade regulations to changes in the characteristics of immigration policies in the receiving countries, including the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. For the purpose of this paper, migration speaks specifically to intra-migration that refers to movement within the same geographically defined locality (i.e. country).

Like all societies of the new world, Jamaica owes it origin and early development to migration. At almost every stage of it history, intra-migration of some sort has dominated their demographic, economic and social positions. This influence has been substantial because, in view of the small sizes of its populations, migratory movements response to economic opportunities caused by Urbanization.

By the early 17th century, the slave trade became the accepted means of securing plantation labour (G. W. Roberts). It provided a cheap and ready supply of slave labour and there was no attempt to encourage reproduction among the slaves at this time. Large numbers of slaves were brought into Jamaica, which as the centre of the Asiento played a significant role in the supply of slaves to Spanish colonies. About half a million slaves were brought into the island between 1702 and 1775 and about 73% were retained assuring a considerable increase in the slave population (G.W. Roberts). Total slaves in Jamaica increased from 45,000 in 1773 to 130,000 in 1754 and to 211,000 in 1787(G.W. Roberts). All this took place in the face of high mortality and very low fertility. High mortality was because of disease endemic to the region and some brought in by slaves. The highest causes of death were fevers, dysentery and yaws, while a substantial number resorted to suicide as a means of escape. Slave women were reluctant to bear children who would inevitably become slaves and so fertility was kept low. In addition slave owners did not encourage child bearing as the pregnant slave would not function properly as a work unit. Due to high mortality and low fertility, high rates of natural decrease were experienced. In Jamaica, an estimate of the natural rate of decrease throughout most of the 18th century was in excess of 2% per year (G.W Roberts). The effects of immigration far outweighed the natural decrease, so the population still increased.

In the later slave period, the slave trade declined and was eventually abolished, thus a decrease in the slave population resulted. Some factors included increasing opposition to the slave trade by humanitarian interests in Britain and fear of uprising among African born slaves. Planters had to consider alternatives, such as stimulating childbearing and improving health conditions. Though this made natural decrease lower, the cessation of immigration meant that slave populations had reduced after 1807.

Notable declines occurred during 1816 and 1834 and continued sometime after emancipation. This contributed to a reduction in the labour force of the plantations. In Trinidad, sending agents to recruit workers in Barbados solved this problem (G.W. Roberts). Between Trinidad and Guyana, total emigration from Barbados was 50,000 up to 1921(G. W. Roberts). The movement was highly sex-selective and caused a notable increase in Non-Indian male the population in Trinidad.

The decline in labourers forced a second stream of migration, known as indenture migration, to develop. Its impact on the demographic conditions and the social and economic structure in Trinidad were far-reaching. The largest number of indenture workers came from India and many went to Trinidad. Indenture migration was influenced by changing fortunes in the sugar industry and the number declined when demand for sugar decreased. The first set of migrants came from India in 1838. Between this year and 1917, when the movement was terminated, total number of East Indian immigrants in the region was 429,600 of whom 143,900 went to Trinidad and 36,400 went to Jamaica. This process of indenture migration from India was instrumental in determining the ten-fold expansion of Trinidad's population during the century following 1844. There was a marked rise in fertility in the years following 1912 and the original imbalance of the sexes in Trinidad had been redressed (G.W. Roberts).

With the abolition of slavery in the United States in 1864, liberated Africans were brought into the region amounting to 39,300, less than one tenth the number of East Indians. Jamaica took 11,000 and Trinidad took 8,900. Other groups of immigrants came from China, Madeira and Europe (see TABLE 0).

The increments of indenture immigration were offset, in Jamaica, by emigration between the 1880s and 1921. When the French began work on the canal in the 1880s, emigrants from Jamaica went to the Isthmus in substantial numbers. Many Jamaicans remained when this effort was discontinued and were present to provide the initial force of unskilled labour when the project was resumed in 1904. On the completion of the canal in 1914, instead of returning home, Jamaicans moved on to Costa Rica to Work in the growing banana industry, on the plantations and on the constructions of railways. Another attraction for Jamaicans to emigrate was under the Treaty of 1902, where Cuban produce was given preferential treatment in the United States. The ex-slaves of that island could not provide the additional labour needed and Jamaicans took advantage of this opportunity. Up to 1912 emigration from Jamaica to Cuba was 22,000.

There was considerable emigration from Jamaica to the United States between 1881 and 1921 totaling 46,000. Terrible economic conditions associated with disastrous hurricanes, World War II and severe depression in the sugar industry, provided incentive for emigration. The freedom of entry and easy access were also incentives up until the passing of the Quota Acts of 1921 and 1924, which brought the movement to a halt. Emigration was of a highly sex- and age- selective nature. This was reflected in the populations of 1911 and 1921, as there was a marked shortage of males within the age interval 15 to 44. It is estimated that Jamaica experienced net emigration of 146,000 between 1881 and 1921.

In the West Indies on a whole, the period from 1920 to World War II was not marked by significant outflows. There were however relatively small movements owing there origin to the development of a new industry - oil. The discovery of oil in Trinidad resulted in an economic boom. Many workers were needed to perform the work, and experienced oilmen came from all over the world.

During the decades of the 1960s through to 2000, there has been negative external migration in Jamaica (see Table 1-4). This indicates that more individuals leave the country than those who enter. During the first half of the decade of the 90s, Jamaica experienced a net migration loss of 111,100. The same period of the decade of the 80s, showed a net loss of 54,774. The period following this in the 80s had an increase in the number of migrants of a little more than 50%, from 54,774 to 113,700. A decline was seen in the early 90s that continued into the second half of the 90s. The net loss for this period was 95,500. The overall total for the period 1980-1989 was 169,474, while the period 1990-1999 was 206,600. Even though there was approximately 50%, increase by the end of the 1980s, a decline was evident at the start and ending of the 1990s. The period 1980-1989 saw emigration being equivalent to approximately 55% of natural increase. The total decline between in the period was 100,200.



Table 0: Migrants from Jamaica

YEAR MIGRATION BALANCE
1844 -
1861 12,800
1871 -800
1881 5,600
1891 -24,800
1911 -43,900
1921 -77,100
1943 25,800
1960 -195,200
1970 -296,500
1982 -216,900
1991 -188,858
Source: Statistical Yearbook of Jamaica, 1994 page 68
: 1 Statistical Yearbook of Jamaica, 1999 page 66


Migration continues to change the demographic composition of Jamaica. One of the reasons for migration be it intra-migration, emigration or immigration is economic opportunities perceived by the new locality. In addition to that, intra-migration in Jamaica is largely from Rural to Urban centres, which is termed urbanization. The perceived benefits of Urbanization coupled with the economic deprivation of rural areas have resulted in an increased demand for housing by intra-migrants. Their exist a demand for housing, social amenities and economic opportunities for the new intra-migrants, we have seen the rape of the environment, the rise of squatter settlements in urban towns as a response by people in seeking to transform their present economic position by the move to those urban centres.


AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF URBANIZATION

Population growth is of fundamental concern to many countries in our world, particularly to Third Word economies and more so Caribbean countries because of their geographical and topological limitations. Despite that fact, a growing population is an important ingredient in economic growth. This implies that there must be a balance between population growth and economic growth in that any unabated increase in population can retard economic growth and result in social ill within a particular locality. Hence, a crucial inducement of urbanization is economic opportunities and-or economic growth within an area. Given the population growth of the Jamaican economy over the past sixty (60) years with the simultaneous increase in the economic base of the economy coupled with the lack of managerial foresight in the planning of economic zones, which are confined to particular localities, urbanization of already urban centres is becoming a new phenomenon within Jamaica.

Because modern industrial societies such as the United Kingdom, France, Switzerland, Norway, Germany, Spain, Canada and the United States which is within the back yard of Jamaica; the great majority of the population live, work and play in the great conurbation that sprawl across most of the already over populated cities. Hence, urban growth is inextricable linked to population increase and industrialization, there is no simple direct relationship between the processes.

According to Andrew Webster (1990), "modernization theory", urban cities are the loci of population growth, mobility and integration. As such, individuals reside in close proximity to towns, which create new lifestyle because of the need to foster the development of different ideas, interests, desires and people. Meaning, the new locality becomes a catalyst for social development producing new cultural orientations, transportation, congestion, pollution, waste management among its residents.

As is the case in Jamaica, population growth has been much more rapid than was forecasted mainly because of natural increase in population, the increase in life expectancy through the improvements in health care. Those factors have resulted in the urban sprawl, which is case in Kingston and St. Andrew today in Jamaica, West Indies.

The most evident sign of this is Mona Commons opposite the University Hospital of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica and the unsightly experience of such sites. This experience (squatter settlements) is a working class phenomenon in Jamaica. Those ?'shanty towns' are the lower class responding to economic opportunities in the urban centers. Meaning, because people are aware of perception of where the economic opportunities lie in the countries and that these are in Kingston and St. Andrew, many lower class individuals are resorted to squatting close to the perceived economic base of the cities. On the other hand, the middle class who have had certain taught social standard do no respond like the lower class but approach the matter by bidding up prices for available land space. The response to this by suppliers of capital is structured dwelling. The irony here lies in the fact that, many contractors will want to build social settings close to the already developed urban centres because they are aware that such development will fetch a higher price. In response to wanting to supply the demand for those arrangements, many contractors have sought approval of land space such as Hope Garden and Long Mountain to build dwelling for middle income families who are unlikely to squat and create ?'shanty towns'. Because Caribbean economies are characterized by small size, poor infrastructure development, high unemployment, and low economic opportunities for all, deforestation (i.e. a rape of the mountains) is a reality like that of their small size.

OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL PROPERITY OF LONG MOUNTAIN

The Long Mountain was a reserved spatial topology for many years not only because of its natural habitation but owing to its composition, and implication of the property to human well-being. I will present a historical overview of this landscape from different authors' and scholars' perspective.

According to Martin,
A Long Mountain Trust has been formed "dedicated to the preservation of Long Mountain's cultural and biological assets, and to promoting the recreational, educational, and research opportunities afforded by this unique natural resource." The Trust involves various departments of the UWI, NGOs and governmental agencies working together to "ensure that Long Mountain's natural attributes will remain for future generations".
A large number of plant and animal species found only in Jamaica are to be found in this dry forest ecosystem. There is at least one plant up there which has not been found anywhere else on this island rich so in biodiversity. Some migratory birds over-winter on the mountain.
The Long Mountain Trust wants to study the treasures of the mountain towards responsible use and preservation in an integrated manner. Several types of studies are conceived: habitat assessments, species inventories, and historical and geographical investigations. But please, let us not study Long Mountain to death as we have done Kingston Harbour while things fall apart.
A critical aim of the Trust "is the provision of adequate protection from further destructive land use activities and the rehabilitation of the degraded habitats." As green space, Kingston needs Long Mountain as much as the city needs the Harbour. And what a combo of sea, plain and mountain, of nature, history and culture, for local and international tourism.
The Long Mountain Trust wants to create a National Botanical Park with public recreational and educational facilities and conducting research in the context of a designated protected area like the other park areas already established. As that Gleaner editorial pointed out the "Project is taking the enlightened view of conservation through responsible and sustainable multiple use (Martin, 2002)

A columnist to the Jamaica Gleaner wrote that:
To hear Franklyn McDonald, head of the National Environmental and Planning Agency (NEPA) tell the story, Beverly Hills will reap rich dividends as the once narrow, winding roads will be widened and the already overburdened water system will be expanded. Already the Beverly Hills citizens are benefiting, he said. The NEPA executive told this column that recent studies of motoring patterns have determined that 20% of Beverly Hills residents use the development road via Karachi Avenue to get to the Mona campus. And a proper road has not been built!
The additional route is apparently via Montclair Drive in Beverly Hills. This is a narrow snake of a road that empties into a congested Beverly Drive as peak-hour traffic tries to escape the torture of Munroe Road. I know this road. It cannot be widened. "They would have to build the road in people's yard," mused one resident. The noise and air pollution from additional traffic would certainly shatter their nerves, argued others. People tend to get nervous when their way of life is threatened. I am reminded of a certain gentleman whose peaceful existence was threatened when a Christian organization erected a tent on a lot across the street from his palatial home. He obtained an injunction from the Supreme Court and ran them out of town because he could not stand to have his peace shattered by their activities. If one were to consider the whole question of what are the options, one would also need to take into account the theory posited by planners who say wider roads do not ease congestion. This is due to what is called "induced travel". An expanded road is like a magnate pulling drivers from all other roads. Drivers will switch to a nice, wide road like we have seen them do on Trafalgar Road or Hope Road or Tom Redcam Avenue. After speaking to Mr. McDonald one felt that the development was well thought out and that maybe Beverly Hills citizens, long accustomed to their cozy suburban lifestyle, were overreacting.
However, Miss Joy Alexander, NEPA's director of Planning and Development, sought more than a little wiggle room when she was asked about the specifics of the road and water expansions. No approvals have been given and she could only say the relevant ministries were doing studies.
In the absence of this approval for critical infrastructure works, why is the development moving full speed ahead? And with new residents moving in daily will the developer pocket his money and walk away leaving taxpayers to foot the bill for the road and improved water scheme?
No one should have a problem with the Long Mountain Country Club development. However, it should be of concern to the hundreds of new homeowners that critical infrastructure work has not yet been done.
NEPA, the government and or the developer need to say how soon the work will be done and who is responsible for doing it. The investors in Beverly Hills and Long Mountain Country Club need this commitment (Quill, 2003)

Another Jamaica Gleaner columnist, and scholar at the University of the West Indies wrote that:
It was fairly clear that the Government has been taken aback by the level of public opposition to the proposed scheme. Apart from the hundreds, perhaps thousands of email protests received by the NRCA and other government agencies and the media, it is known that important private sector leaders have been making their objections quietly known to the government.
In what could be a move to save the face of his Environment & Housing Minister, Easton Douglas, the PM announced that the Hope Country Club plan is dead... at least for the moment. The developers, Robert Cartade and the Minister of Housing, will be offered another piece of green space on Long Mountain, overlooking Mona Reservoir, Kingston main water source. The land also faces Hope Gardens, separated by about a mile of the Liguanea plain (Maxwell, 2000)
In an article titled "Jamaica: Fight to Save Long Mountain Continues", the author went further by providing an environmental impact assessment on the landscape that read:
A requested Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) found residential properties too close to the Mona Reservoir could cause contamination by sewage. Furthermore, the EIA noted, active faults in the area makes it vulnerable to earthquakes and construction pressures could cause the reservoir to leak. The Mona Reservoir is one of the main water storage areas in Metropolitan Kingston (Neuville, 2001)

A veteran journalist, Morris Cargill, argued the issues of the Long Mountain development as blatant corruption in government. In a monograph in the daily Gleaner of January 23, Cargill (2000) forward the perspective that:

This corruption contaminates all classes, and all ages, from the lowest sections of our society to what is often laughingly called the upper-classes. Let me give you just one example of the sort of thing that can go on in even the highest legal circles. A certain attorney, whose identity I don't wish to disclose for the moment (for I am reluctant to be unnecessarily hurtful), was recently struck off the rolls for fraud. But believe it or not the worthy lawyers concerned decided that this striking off would be only briefly imposed, and after a short time would be re-instated. Any attorney guilty of stealing clients money should be struck off the rolls permanently, and the fact that this was not done is proof to me that the so-called famous lawyers were themselves touched with the prevailing corruption.

Hope Gardens has been cleared, but another site has been proposed. This site is supposed to be somewhere between Mona Estate and Beverley Hills. However the general opinion seems to be, that a housing development in this area would jeopardise our water supplies and even endanger the integrity of Mona Dam.


To be what is known as "serious" for a moment (something I don't really like to be), it seems that while we can all rejoice in the abandonment of Hope Gardens as a housing scheme, sundry people including the Prime Minister will be getting into another tangle again. One gets the impression that the Prime Minister has offered the Long Mountain area near Mona as an alternative site to Mr. Cartade. On the other hand the National Water Commission (NWC) disapproves of this idea apparently for very good reasons (Cargill, 2000)

DEFORESTATION

Figure 0.2: Deforestation: Long Mountain Road Construction


Source: Tara Hirst, 2003
According to Alain Marcoux, Senior Officer, FAO Population Programme Service, "deforestation is one of the major environmental issues, not only directly affecting countries and locations, but also is a global phenomenon. The degree of international attention to deforestation is commensurate with the role of forests in the global, national and local ecosystems. Forest provides a wide variety of highly valuable ecological, economic and social services, including: the conservation of biological diversity; carbon storage; soil and water conservation; provision of employment and enhanced livelihoods; enhancement of agricultural production systems, and improvement of urban and peri-urban living condition."

Obviously, those services of forests differ widely in nature and therefore tend to be valued in different manner by different societies and social grouping. While some services are immediately visible, others are of a long-term nature and take their full sense only in the perspective of intergenerational equity - a critical viewpoint in defining and assessing the sustainability of human development.

With the increasing number of urban centres, and the continuous demand for housing stocks and other social infrastructure developments in many geographical localities in Jamaica, this building of dwellings on mountains will continued to be reality within the Jamaican experience.

Jamaica is the third largest geographically defined landmass, approximately 230 km long, 80km wide at the centre and covers an area of approximately 11, 500 km2, in the Caribbean with a population of approximately 2.7 million in 2004.

Despite the fact of small size, environmentalists have argued that Jamaica is experiencing an average annual deforestation rate of 3.9 percent to the world's rate of 5.2 percent. In addition, the island's lowlands have been mostly cleared in the past for agriculture, and presently more than 75 percent of the original forests have been lost to development. Continuing, bauxite mining, the island's second largest domestic earner of foreign exchange to tourism is considered the single largest rape of forestry. Tourism, on the other hand, has done its equal share of negatives on the environment. From the Social and Economic Survey (1997), there is a substantial decline in the welfare of people in the parish of St. Mary, Jamaica and in other rural areas. The United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) Report, poverty has increased significantly in Latin America and the Caribbean which its views explain the reason for the high degree of deforestation in the region.

According to World Wild Life, "the eco-region comprises approximately 85 percent of Jamaica's terrestrial area and covers the entire island except coastal areas and low lands dry forests." At present, only the most remote and inaccessible forests in Jamaica are considered original and undisturbed. In 1983, less than 67,000 hectares (i.e. 6%) of the Jamaica were still covered in undisturbed natural forest. In 1995, the World Resources Institute ranked Jamaica as the country with the highest deforestation rate (Hoagland et al, 1995).


A NASA's satellite report revealed that, "cutting down trees increases land temperature. Cities with few trees become ?'heat islands.' Without vegetation to block and absorb the sunlight, surface temperatures can rise as much as 12 0 F as the pavement bakes.

OVERVIEW OF LONG MOUNTAIN COUNTRY CLUB

Topography and Drainage

The Long Mountain development has been structured in such a way that is posing no foreseeable danger to the Mona Reservoir. The natural soak away point in that area is located to the northern most part of the site and that point has been reserved as a recreational place on that site. Long Mountain itself is surrounded by looses sediment rock in the Liguanea area.


Structure

Long Mountain is located in an area distinctive of major down ward warping. This because the location is on top of major 2 fault lines one that runs southeast to North West known as the Wagwater Belt and the other known as the Plantation Garden.

According to historical evidence to state that, the Wagwater Trough is prone to earthquakes, as the two primary boundaries are considered seismically active.

The comfort to this however is that the whole site has been structured upon massive compact recrystalised limestone, which is extraordinarily hard and secure.


Potential Hazards

According to the NEPA report, the area reserved for construction is relatively stable and sound. The area should be somewhat safe against flooding, both during and post development. Although the area is noted to be vulnerable to earth quakes because of the fault lines located in that area and the fact that they are still some what active, is said to be pretty secure as the buildings have been built away from these faults.


IMPACT OF SEWAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

Drainage

"The access road from Karachi leading to Long Mountains is on the north east access slope at some distance behind the reservoir. On the North East slope, surface drainage is visible due to the presence of inorganic sediments in the fractured rock. According to the drainage plan provided by the developers, storm water run -off is designed to take excess flows to the northeastern and the southeastern slopes of the mountain. There are seven storm water outlets located at regular intervals on the south west designed to allow water to run off from the development."

The plan has incorporated eight out lets for storm water drainage on the northeastern slope over looking the reservoir. In the instances where there is extensive rainfall, excess run-off will be channeled into narrow gullies, which drain the lower slope over looking the reservoir.

In order to safe guard against the pollution of the reservoir with oil and garbage and the like, cut off drains should be put in place at the foot of the southwestern side of the reservoir. The cut of should be set up in such a way that it allows for storm water to be collected into the inceptor drain prior to entering the reservoir and then channeled into the August Town gully near by. It should be noted that this drain should be carefully monitored at all time to ensure proper maintenance.

The remaining fifty percent of the run-off generated by the site is expected to flow down the southwestern slopes of Long Mountain towards ear by communities such as Mountain View Ave. and Hampstead Terrace. This kind of run-off poses a risk of localized flooding for these areas and this is a consequence of the development.

A means to reconcile this problem is the development of rock beam at the base of the hill to control to some extent the movement of rock debris and to reduce the energy flow of the water running off that area. Gullies existing in these areas prior to construction should be clean and maintained regularly to ensure against proper drainage in the event of heavy rains.



Ground Water Resources.

There is an aquifer located near the development site of Long Mountain, known as Long Mountain Aquifer. It formed by the underlying limestone rock. This aquifer is estimated to yield up to 7.3 millions cubic meters per annum (Water Resources Development Master 1990). There are presently four wells that are operated by the National Water Commission, that utilize water from this aquifer. The abstraction level from this source is approximated to be 8.2 million meter per year.

Now that rate of abstraction from this aquifer exceeds the recommended capacity of with drawl and so it is expected that further development of this source of ground water will be nil as the rate of consumption is higher than the rate of replenishment. In addition, the water is becoming salinated due to elevated levels of sodium chloride in the wells and so consumption is dangerous

Excavation Methods and Impacts.

Noise pollution due to blasting in the development area could pose problems for the neighboring communities> Beverly Hills being once such area. Beyond that, however controlled blasting is said to have been the mean used to excavate the area. This was to break up large boulders to workable sizes. However, the blasting taking place does have its negative implications on surrounding buildings as vibrations could cause structural damage to surrounding buildings. In addition, the vibrations could cause major slope movement in the area and create complication in the reconsolidated rock area. The residents of the Warweika community were seen on the news demonstrating because of the dangers posed to them and their homes due to falling boulders during blasting….and this adds to many concerns and complications created by blasting.
There was also the concern that blasting could compromise the integrity of the reservoir and structural damage due to the vibrations.



The Long Mountain Housing Development is not only highlighting urban sprawl but is also encroaching on one of Jamaica's watersheds, forestries, mountains and natural wildlife zones (see 0.1). Geologists argue that the site's present topology cannot support such a development. Hence, the decision to build on this property appears to be more politically that prudent for vote than within the context of sustainable development.

The development of Mona Heights, which is Jamaica's prime agricultural land, was so designed in response to the need for housing by intra-migrants because of the economic development of Kingston and St. Andrew. Now with the population of Jamaica having moved from a few thousands to approximately 2.7 million people, and little plans by policy makers to development the economic base across the entire island there is a greater need for housing in each urban centre. Concerning the pressing need for housing and other social amenities, Jamaica has been experiencing urban sprawl. In that, initially one urban centre was Kingston proper, and then it moved to Kingston and St. Andrew to presently Kingston, St. Andrew and Portmore. Increasingly more people are drawn to Kingston and St. Andrew and particularly to the lower belts of St. Andrews because those localities have economic opportunities and social amenities such as Universities, Teachers' Colleges, renowned Traditional Grammar secondary schools, Hospitals and multi-national corporations; which intra-migrants see as betterment for themselves and their family after which immigration becomes another alternative for them.



INTRODUCTION

In an article that appeared in the Gleaner, dated January 13, 2000, titled Housing project awaits green light "THE MINISTRY of Environment and Housing has said that Long Mountain, the proposed site for the housing development given to Selective Homes Development Limited, is an area parallel to Mountain View Avenue in St. Andrew.


However, the location has not been confirmed as the site for the proposed development and would be finally determined by a survey team in keeping with the decision made following consultations with several agencies.


The agencies consulted include the National Water Commission (NWC), the Natural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA) and the Town Planning Department, along with other relevant agencies.


In a release last week, the Ministry said the exact demarcation and size of the land to be made available to Selective Homes Development Limited would constitute 50-60 acres of the 520 acres of land owned by Government in the area.


The release said the environmental impact assessment carried out on behalf of the NWC was done within the context of the 196 acres of land for an Operation PRIDE development in Beverley Hills to which the NWC and Beverley Hills residents objected.

A map of the proposed site showed that it would not be feasible for sewerage to run over the ridge but down the slope, allaying fears that the Mona Reservoir could be contaminated. Other concerns raised were that the area was geologically unstable and that the area has been identified as a watershed.
Ministry of Environment and Housing, 2000

In an attempt by the present government, which is run by the People's National Party (PNP) to deal with issue of land rationalization, and the issue of squatting in Jamaica, the administration has set out through a project named Operation Pride to legitimized squatting by poor people across the island by a structured land ownership. Chief localities in Kingston Metropolitan Area are Long Mountain, Riverton City and Calaloo Bed.

Long Mountain is situated just above the Mona Reservoir (i.e. northwestern end of Long Mountain) and adjacent to the already developed Beverley Hills which is primarily an elite neighborhood. Presently, the route of entrance is through the middle class communities of Karachi Pines and Karachi. Long Mountain, however, has its own entrance which is along the Munroe road, opposite the Saints Peter, and Paul Preparatory School and adjacent the community of Wellington Glades. The final road, which will conjoint, the community is presently under construction. Because Long Mountain as the name implies is located on a mountain, the road is been, build by blasting and drilling of rocks. What presently holds is a sight hazard: the Long Mountain road construction.

Initially Operation Pride was allocated 500 hectares of Long Mountain for the construction of housing for lower class and middle class residents of Jamaicans. The government's final allotment was 60 hectares of the mountains. The result is the developer has consumed approximately 50 hectares. Mr. Brown the site manager argued, the community constitutes 550 dwelling units, and a recreational area.



The name of the site is the Long Mountain Country Club (see figure 2). Initially the site should consist of 566 (high-density) units varying from three (3) bedroom-detached houses to studios (see figure 1 above).

Continuing, Mr. Brown said, Long Mountain constituted primarily of shrubs and not trees and that they will replant three (3) trees for every one cut down." We would like readers to be cognizant that the project is situated on 60 hectares with already 50 hectares have been utilized for dwelling. Given that fact, with only 10 hectares remaining, is it possible to replant three (3) trees for every one (1) tree destroyed? Wow!

Mr. Dwight Whylie's positions

Jamaica Observer columnist Mr. Dwight Whylie in seeking to defend the project wrote an article in the Sunday Observer dated June 10, 2001 entitled Long Mountain answers provide another side to that purported by environmentalist and sociologist Mr. Peter Espeut and by journalist Dr. John Maxwell. The latter distinguished men have adamantly condemned the construction on the site. However, Mr. Whylie seeks balance this discourse by offering another perspective on the seemingly endless debate as the effective of housing development on the site.

According to Mr. Dwight Whylie (see appendix i):
• "As a consequence all runoff flows down the Mountain View Avenue slope and not towards the reservoir;
• The nature of the rocks virtually eliminates the likelihood of pollution reaching the reservoir;
• indigenous trees will be use to line the roads, a pure stand of original dry forest will be preserved, and a natural basin will be turned into an open recreation area;
• the plan, all other information, including environment impact studies, are freely available at the developer's office, Selective Homes and Properties at 8c Constant Spring Road;
• In collaboration with the National Water Commission, the developers are providing two elevated tanks with a total capacity of one million gallons, and pumps to keep them full. These will not only supply Long Mountain Country Club, but greatly improve water pressure in surrounding communities;
• They are running sewer lines above ground in the development to minimize the possibility of leakage and ground pollution
• a proposal for the surfacing and widening of Karachi Avenue and installation of the coordinated traffic lights to control movement at the junctions of Karachi Avenue and Wellington Drive with Mona Road. I am skeptical, as there is little space to widen Karachi;
• Second, a proposal to link the road being built for Wellington Heights (which joins Munroe Road close to the junction with Wellington Drive) with Pines of Karachi and Long Mountain Country Club. That road, still being built, would need a set of coordinated traffic lights with other nearby road junctions to streamline traffic flow and lessen the danger of the blind corner;
• the blasting that residents of the surrounding communities complained of.




Mr. Whylie arguments lack environmental clarity, scientific facts - statistics, and contradict the very thing he seeks to justify in his article. The issue of congestion that presently holds has not been address but Mr. Whylie does not foresee future problems by adding a minimum of two (2) hundred vehicles. Mr. Whylie even if Old Hope Road is widens, what about the Wellington Drive, Munroe Road, Karachi Avenue and Hope Road. Continuing, he did not see air pollution as an environmental impact from the development by way of the congestion through the additional automobiles. Mr. Whylie, presently the noise pollution that holds is also of environmental impact although this will not be long term. By Mr. Whylie's failure to clearly justify or forward a position on the none likelihood of land pollution from the sewage, he has clearly admitted that land pollution will be the case but that such an occurrence will be minimal. Hence, this adds more credence to my argument and concurs with Messrs. John Maxwell and Peter Espeut's positions that project has long run environmental impact.

Mr. Whylie wrote that "indigenous trees will be use to line the roads, a pure stand of original dry forest will be preserved, and a natural basin will be turned into an open recreation area", this contradicts Mr. Brown's statement that only shrubs were on the mountain. Continuing, the removal of trees and the importation of top soils Mr. Whylie must affect the climate, the biodiversity of the environment.

On the issue of runoffs, Mr. Whylie, we observed that approximately 100 yards from Karachi Pines to the north that section of the land to the left of the road there was land slippage, no built runoff or the unstructured runoffs is above the reservoir and not Mountain view. On the site itself, we were taken to locality in which the runoff was to the north of the property being on above the reservoir and not the side of Mountain View or even Beverley Hills. This, although, may not directly run into the reservoir does run over the reservoir. Hence, Mr. Whylie's position is not solely correct as it relates to "As a consequence all runoff flows down the Mountain View Avenue slope and not towards the reservoir".











Figure 2: TRISTAN - LONG MOUNTAIN COUNTRY CLUB OVERLOOKING THE RESERVOIR (Mona Dam)



Source: Tara Hirst, 2003
Environmental impact

In an article entitled Housing development under fire by Lynford Simpson, which appeared in the Gleaner dated January 13, 2000, Freelance Writer, stated, "Studies done on behalf of the National Water Commission (NWC) two years ago clearly labelled the watershed lands in the Long Mountain range overlooking the Mona Reservoir unsuitable for housing development. The lands are owned by the NWC."

Climate
• Climatic change is expected to result in this region from the construction on this mountain. Due to the fact that green belts are now being replaced by asphalt, this will result in an increase of the temperature of the area and thus result in higher evaporation levels. This in turn will affect rain fall in an already drought prone area because now the wind from the ocean is free to blow away all cloud covers because there are no more trees to brake it's impact.
Given that trees directly impact on the temperature, with the cutting down of approximately 50 hectare of trees and shrubs, a climate change is expected in the long run as those cannot be replaced by replanting on the asphalt of the site.

N.B. Although we told that green space should be apart of the property [Site Manager (Mr. Brown)], we say none but we did not tour the entire property but 50 hectares of trees and shrubs have been destroyed for buildings and more concrete structures.

Permeation levels
• Permeation levels will also increase, because the construction site is directly onto of a limestone area. Limestone rocks are known to be highly pervious and so, without thick top soil and greenery to slow down the permeation process, water can more rapidly move down into the ground. This poses extreme dangers of contaminating the underground water in that area. Note that the site Manager (i.e. Mr. Brown) explained that there are four (4) underground wells own and operated by the National Water Commission. However, he remarked that he does not known where they are situated on the property.

Continuing, the process previously mentioned in the above paragraph could also be cause for concern for the stability of the Hope River, which is located very near that area. The river can be prone to over flowing as it now exposed to more water entering into it and no measures have been taken to expand the capacity of how much water the river can maintain. In addition, run off levels will also increase due to the fact that the over 500 hectares of trees and shrubs have been removed from the soil. This also poses a major problem with reference to soil erosion. As on the way to the site approximately 100 meters from the entrance to the site, the evidence of top soil erosion was evident. This evidence was from the road construction with proper retaining wall.

Mr. Brown had mentioned that the site will not contaminate the existing wells or the reservoir for that matter, we observed limited garden space to which were new top soil which endangers the present ecosystem of the area.






Figure 4: ROAD NETWORK TO LONG MOUNTAIN COUNTRY CLUB

Source: Tara Hirst, 2003
Flooding risks
Before this issue is present herein, note that we did not observed any structured run offs for this site with other 550 dwellings units on a mountain.

• Flooding risk is likely to increase in the area. Beverly Hills appears to be very vulnerable as it is to the right of the site just below the gradient of the Long Mountain development project.

Continuing, all the rainfall in that area has to run off to somewhere and the greenery is no longer there to